Uganda

Stop the Rot: Documentation of Experiences and Lessons Learnt in the prevention of Rapid Handpump Corrosion in Uganda

Report by Kerstin Danert, Paul Bisoborwa, Erisa Kyeyune, Robert Mutiibwa and Loretta Nakayima

About 67% of the population of rural Uganda rely on a handpump, and, according to the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE) database, the country currently has an asset base of over 63,000 handpumps. While there is a policy shift towards piped supplies (including using solar-driven pumps), handpumps will remain important in providing water to Uganda’s rural population for the foreseeable future. The U2 and U3 (known elsewhere as the India Mark II and Mark III), as well as the Uganda 3 Modified Pump (U3M) are the standardised pumps used in the country.

The rapid corrosion of submerged handpump riser pipes and rods has been well documented in Uganda, with over a dozen reports, and studies, including academic publications on the subject. When handpumps corrode, the red, badly-tasting water of the supply is often rejected and sources abandoned, with users returning to more distant and contaminated supplies. Rapid corrosion also leads to premature failure of the supply as riser pipes leak or even break completely. It is widely accepted that galvanised iron (GI) riser pipes and rods corrode in aggressive groundwater where pH levels are low (<6.5). High levels of salinity and high chloride concentrations are also highly corrosive.

In recognition of the widespread corrosion problem in Uganda, in 2016 MWE issued a letter suspending the use of galvanised iron riser pipes. Despite the fact that rapid corrosion is a problem in at least 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (plus Sudan), Uganda is one of the very few countries to have taken affirmative action to address the issue.

This short study, funded by The Waterloo Foundation, set out to document Uganda’s experience and lessons learnt in preventing rapid corrosion. It is intended to provide insights and recommendations for Uganda and other countries. The in-country study was undertaken in October/November 2023, and comprised interviews with 55 stakeholders from government, suppliers, NGOs, drillers and handpump mechanics as well as a review of select documentation and analysis of quantitative data collected in 16 districts by the NGO Water for People. As well as discussing with stakeholders based in Kampala, the study involved visits to Mityana, Kibaale, Kyegegwa, Mubende, Kamwenge and Masindi Districts, including some observations of components and handpump removal.

The study has found qualitative evidence that the suspension of use of GI pipes on handpump installations in Uganda has had an overall positive effect on reducing the phenomenon of handpump corrosion in the country. It took a few years for stakeholders to adjust to the suspension, including availing alternative materials and determining which grades of stainless steel to be used. In the early years, there were issues of availability and supply of alternatives, gaps in information among some stakeholders alongside cost concerns. Initially, some organisations installed grade 202 stainless steel, which was also found to corrode rapidly. In addition to stainless steel pipes, uPVC (with uPVC connectors) and uPVC pipes with stainless steel connectors are used.

While most stakeholders seem to be aware of the suspension of GI riser pipes and rods, this does not seem to be fully adhered to, with some district local governments, NGOs and communities apparently still installing GI on new installations or for replacements. The study witnessed “mixed” installations comprising GI, and stainless steel (which also sometimes appeared to comprise different grades). Such installations risk creating problems through galvanic corrosion, a phenomenon whereby dissimilar metals submerged in water increase corrosion.

The main outstanding issues found by the study were:

• Lack of national standard specifications for the alternative materials, with organisations mainly learning from experience, from each other, or from suppliers.
• The alternatives to GI pipes all have depth limitations – with recognised depth limitations, based on current experiences are: 45m (stainless steel), 9m (uPVC with uPVC connectors) and 30 to 39m (uPVC with stainless steel connectors). However, these limitations have not been documented, nor are they set out in any guidelines, and so may not be widely understood.
• Ongoing questions about which stainless steel grade is most appropriate, with most organisations now going for grade 304, but some preferring 316.
• There are concerns (backed up by physical evidence) of the quality of some stainless-steel pipes and rods available on the market. However, given that stainless steel also needs to be handled differently from GI, some of these failures could also be attributed to poor handling.
• Stakeholders purchasing in Uganda have faced challenges in assuring quality. Some have managed to work with suppliers who do consistently provide quality components. However, regulation with respect to quality is lacking, as is clear labelling. There are currently no procedures or simple guidance available to easily determine the stainless steel grade.
• Stainless steel pipes require different handling from GI, and given the lack of training, installers have had to learn by doing. Given this, there may be issues of poor handling all over the country.
• The price of stainless-steel pipes is about three times that of GI, while uPVC with stainless steel couplers are about double the price. This may be one of the reasons for ongoing use of GI by some organisations (including some local governments) as well as some communities.
• There are four main handpump suppliers based in Kampala, as well as other smaller suppliers. Concerns have been raised about difficulties in obtaining spare parts (in general) in some parts of the country.

Uganda is witnessing innovations in handpump technologies in the form of the Handpump Improvement Project (HIP), a joint initiative between MWE, WaterAid, Masindi and Kabarole District local government and Poldaw Designs Ltd, which is developing and testing handpumps with design improvements including heavy duty PVC pipes and lightweight tools for lifting and lowering pipes. Trials are ongoing, with 100 installations to be tested in Masindi and Kabarole Districts.  Results are expected at the end of 2025.

The study concludes with a number of recommendations as summarised below:

Studies and research

• Explore reasons why some stakeholders are not adhering to the suspension of GI riser pipes and pump rods and how to effectively overcome these barriers.
• Undertake analysis of quantitative data including MWE Management Information System (MIS) data on shallow wells and boreholes (including their functionality status/due for decommissioning). Quantify the extent to which handpumps with corroding GI components have been replaced in the country, and also estimate the cost and human capacity implications of replacing poorly functioning or abandoned sources as a result of corrosion.
• Monitor installations to determine if there are any problems with corrosion of the water tank and cylinder when connected to a stainless steel pipe as a result of galvanic corrosion or poor installation, and consider checking for the release of contaminants, including lead.
• Clarify maximum installation depths for alternative materials through testing, and communicate this clearly to all stakeholders through written guidance (discussed below).
• Developa short document (and film) on what users can measure and inspect directly. This could support stakeholders in assuring quality.
• Undertake further research on the relationships between pH, salinity, other water quality parameters and the quality of the galvanising (particularly the thickness of the galvanising).
• Explore alternatives to the nationwide suspension of GI, such as lifting the suspension locally based on very clear, scientifically robust criteria in relation to pH and salinity.
• The appropriateness of the discontinuation of funding for shallow wells should be further studied and reviewed for appropriateness.

Recommended actions for Uganda

• Support quality assurance efforts by updating the Uganda Standard Specifications for the India Mark deepwell and shallow well handpumps, referred to in Uganda as the U2 and U3 pumps.
• Develop a certification mechanism for the suppliers of handpumps/components to ensure quality and include labelling requirements to help consumers identify appropriate parts.
• Raise awareness and improve knowledge of (i) the GI suspension, and the rationale behind it, (ii) how to determine whether iron in water is naturally occurring or caused by corrosion, (iii) appropriate alternatives (iv) key issues with respect to grades of stainless steel and depth limitations and (v) identifying appropriate parts. Written guidance should be provided.
• Provide training for handpump mechanics and handpump installers across the country on the correct handling of the uPVC and stainless-steel alternatives currently available on the market in Uganda, and ensure that they have the appropriate toolkits to handle these materials.
• Incorporate inspection of handpump component quality and installation in post-construction monitoring by government, NGOs, the Uganda Drilling Contractors Association (UDCA) and funding agencies.
• Continue to engage with and support innovations such as the Handpump Improvement Project.
• MWE, in collaboration with NGOs and District Local Governments should find ways of supporting poor and vulnerable communities with ongoing corrosion problems to replace GI pipes and rods.

Lessons for other countries

Based on the experiences of Uganda, key lessons for other countries that are considering taking affirmative action to address rapid handpump corrosion are:

• Undertake an in-country study to document the extent of the problem and any efforts that may have been undertaken to address it in the past. If rapid handpump corrosion is found to be a widespread problem in the country, and is related to GI installed in aggressive groundwater, consider suspending the use of GI – carefully considering the pros and cons of a nationwide or more localised suspension as well as the feasibility of using alternative parts.
• Prior to any suspension, undertake extensive and transparent stakeholder consultation, taking on board concerns and developing a suitable timeline. Provide user-friendly guidance on alternative materials and their handling. In advance of any suspension, ensure that all stakeholders are informed of it, and are made aware of any implications for programmes and budgets.
• Government should either refer to suitable international standard specifications, update national standard specifications or (as an interim measure) provide clear guidance regarding alternative materials, components and dimensioning that should be used. Evaluation is needed to ensure that materials are safe for contact with drinking water. Guidance should include information on depth limitations and material handling.
• Document the process of suspension, and monitor adherence, as well as challenges faced by organisations and communities, and consider how to adapt programmes and policies to enable changes to be effective.
• Ensure that handpump mechanics and others across the country are trained in the correct handling of the alternatives to GI. They should also be provided with appropriate toolkits for handling the stainless-steel and uPVC pipe materials.
• The responsible line ministry should work with the agency responsible for standards to ensure the importation of quality handpump components and consider certification of suppliers.

The full report is available here.