Groundwater

Stop the Rot: Uganda

by

Stop the Rot: Documentation of Experiences and Lessons Learnt in the prevention of Rapid Handpump Corrosion in Uganda

Report by Kerstin Danert, Paul Bisoborwa, Erisa Kyeyune, Robert Mutiibwa and Loretta Nakayima

About 67% of the population of rural Uganda rely on a handpump, and, according to the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE) database, the country currently has an asset base of over 63,000 handpumps. While there is a policy shift towards piped supplies (including using solar-driven pumps), handpumps will remain important in providing water to Uganda’s rural population for the foreseeable future. The U2 and U3 (known elsewhere as the India Mark II and Mark III), as well as the Uganda 3 Modified Pump (U3M) are the standardised pumps used in the country.

The rapid corrosion of submerged handpump riser pipes and rods has been well documented in Uganda, with over a dozen reports, and studies, including academic publications on the subject. When handpumps corrode, the red, badly-tasting water of the supply is often rejected and sources abandoned, with users returning to more distant and contaminated supplies. Rapid corrosion also leads to premature failure of the supply as riser pipes leak or even break completely. It is widely accepted that galvanised iron (GI) riser pipes and rods corrode in aggressive groundwater where pH levels are low (<6.5). High levels of salinity and high chloride concentrations are also highly corrosive.

In recognition of the widespread corrosion problem in Uganda, in 2016 MWE issued a letter suspending the use of galvanised iron riser pipes. Despite the fact that rapid corrosion is a problem in at least 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa (plus Sudan), Uganda is one of the very few countries to have taken affirmative action to address the issue.

This short study, funded by The Waterloo Foundation, set out to document Uganda’s experience and lessons learnt in preventing rapid corrosion. It is intended to provide insights and recommendations for Uganda and other countries. The in-country study was undertaken in October/November 2023, and comprised interviews with 55 stakeholders from government, suppliers, NGOs, drillers and handpump mechanics as well as a review of select documentation and analysis of quantitative data collected in 16 districts by the NGO Water for People. As well as discussing with stakeholders based in Kampala, the study involved visits to Mityana, Kibaale, Kyegegwa, Mubende, Kamwenge and Masindi Districts, including some observations of components and handpump removal.

The study has found qualitative evidence that the suspension of use of GI pipes on handpump installations in Uganda has had an overall positive effect on reducing the phenomenon of handpump corrosion in the country. It took a few years for stakeholders to adjust to the suspension, including availing alternative materials and determining which grades of stainless steel to be used. In the early years, there were issues of availability and supply of alternatives, gaps in information among some stakeholders alongside cost concerns. Initially, some organisations installed grade 202 stainless steel, which was also found to corrode rapidly. In addition to stainless steel pipes, uPVC (with uPVC connectors) and uPVC pipes with stainless steel connectors are used.

While most stakeholders seem to be aware of the suspension of GI riser pipes and rods, this does not seem to be fully adhered to, with some district local governments, NGOs and communities apparently still installing GI on new installations or for replacements. The study witnessed “mixed” installations comprising GI, and stainless steel (which also sometimes appeared to comprise different grades). Such installations risk creating problems through galvanic corrosion, a phenomenon whereby dissimilar metals submerged in water increase corrosion.

The main outstanding issues found by the study were:

  • Lack of national standard specifications for the alternative materials, with organisations mainly learning from experience, from each other, or from suppliers.
  • The alternatives to GI pipes all have depth limitations – with recognised depth limitations, based on current experiences are: 45m (stainless steel), 9m (uPVC with uPVC connectors) and 30 to 39m (uPVC with stainless steel connectors). However, these limitations have not been documented, nor are they set out in any guidelines, and so may not be widely understood.
  • Ongoing questions about which stainless steel grade is most appropriate, with most organisations now going for grade 304, but some preferring 316.
  • There are concerns (backed up by physical evidence) of the quality of some stainless-steel pipes and rods available on the market. However, given that stainless steel also needs to be handled differently from GI, some of these failures could also be attributed to poor handling.
  • Stakeholders purchasing in Uganda have faced challenges in assuring quality. Some have managed to work with suppliers who do consistently provide quality components. However, regulation with respect to quality is lacking, as is clear labelling. There are currently no procedures or simple guidance available to easily determine the stainless steel grade.
  • Stainless steel pipes require different handling from GI, and given the lack of training, installers have had to learn by doing. Given this, there may be issues of poor handling all over the country.
  • The price of stainless-steel pipes is about three times that of GI, while uPVC with stainless steel couplers are about double the price. This may be one of the reasons for ongoing use of GI by some organisations (including some local governments) as well as some communities.
  • There are four main handpump suppliers based in Kampala, as well as other smaller suppliers. Concerns have been raised about difficulties in obtaining spare parts (in general) in some parts of the country.

Uganda is witnessing innovations in handpump technologies in the form of the Handpump Improvement Project (HIP), a joint initiative between MWE, WaterAid, Masindi and Kabarole District local government and Poldaw Designs Ltd, which is developing and testing handpumps with design improvements including heavy duty PVC pipes and lightweight tools for lifting and lowering pipes. Trials are ongoing, with 100 installations to be tested in Masindi and Kabarole Districts.  Results are expected at the end of 2025.

The study concludes with a number of recommendations as summarised below:

Studies and research

  • Explore reasons why some stakeholders are not adhering to the suspension of GI riser pipes and pump rods and how to effectively overcome these barriers.
  • Undertake analysis of quantitative data including MWE Management Information System (MIS) data on shallow wells and boreholes (including their functionality status/due for decommissioning). Quantify the extent to which handpumps with corroding GI components have been replaced in the country, and also estimate the cost and human capacity implications of replacing poorly functioning or abandoned sources as a result of corrosion.
  • Monitor installations to determine if there are any problems with corrosion of the water tank and cylinder when connected to a stainless steel pipe as a result of galvanic corrosion or poor installation, and consider checking for the release of contaminants, including lead.
  • Clarify maximum installation depths for alternative materials through testing, and communicate this clearly to all stakeholders through written guidance (discussed below).
  • Developa short document (and film) on what users can measure and inspect directly. This could support stakeholders in assuring quality.
  • Undertake further research on the relationships between pH, salinity, other water quality parameters and the quality of the galvanising (particularly the thickness of the galvanising).
  • Explore alternatives to the nationwide suspension of GI, such as lifting the suspension locally based on very clear, scientifically robust criteria in relation to pH and salinity.
  • The appropriateness of the discontinuation of funding for shallow wells should be further studied and reviewed for appropriateness.

Recommended actions for Uganda

  • Support quality assurance efforts by updating the Uganda Standard Specifications for the India Mark deepwell and shallow well handpumps, referred to in Uganda as the U2 and U3 pumps.
  • Develop a certification mechanism for the suppliers of handpumps/components to ensure quality and include labelling requirements to help consumers identify appropriate parts.
  • Raise awareness and improve knowledge of (i) the GI suspension, and the rationale behind it, (ii) how to determine whether iron in water is naturally occurring or caused by corrosion, (iii) appropriate alternatives (iv) key issues with respect to grades of stainless steel and depth limitations and (v) identifying appropriate parts. Written guidance should be provided.
  • Provide training for handpump mechanics and handpump installers across the country on the correct handling of the uPVC and stainless-steel alternatives currently available on the market in Uganda, and ensure that they have the appropriate toolkits to handle these materials.
  • Incorporate inspection of handpump component quality and installation in post-construction monitoring by government, NGOs, the Uganda Drilling Contractors Association (UDCA) and funding agencies.
  • Continue to engage with and support innovations such as the Handpump Improvement Project.
  • MWE, in collaboration with NGOs and District Local Governments should find ways of supporting poor and vulnerable communities with ongoing corrosion problems to replace GI pipes and rods.

Lessons for other countries

Based on the experiences of Uganda, key lessons for other countries that are considering taking affirmative action to address rapid handpump corrosion are:

  • Undertake an in-country study to document the extent of the problem and any efforts that may have been undertaken to address it in the past. If rapid handpump corrosion is found to be a widespread problem in the country, and is related to GI installed in aggressive groundwater, consider suspending the use of GI – carefully considering the pros and cons of a nationwide or more localised suspension as well as the feasibility of using alternative parts.
  • Prior to any suspension, undertake extensive and transparent stakeholder consultation, taking on board concerns and developing a suitable timeline. Provide user-friendly guidance on alternative materials and their handling. In advance of any suspension, ensure that all stakeholders are informed of it, and are made aware of any implications for programmes and budgets.
  • Government should either refer to suitable international standard specifications, update national standard specifications or (as an interim measure) provide clear guidance regarding alternative materials, components and dimensioning that should be used. Evaluation is needed to ensure that materials are safe for contact with drinking water. Guidance should include information on depth limitations and material handling.
  • Document the process of suspension, and monitor adherence, as well as challenges faced by organisations and communities, and consider how to adapt programmes and policies to enable changes to be effective.
  • Ensure that handpump mechanics and others across the country are trained in the correct handling of the alternatives to GI. They should also be provided with appropriate toolkits for handling the stainless-steel and uPVC pipe materials.
  • The responsible line ministry should work with the agency responsible for standards to ensure the importation of quality handpump components and consider certification of suppliers.

The full report is available here.

Stop the Rot: History of Rapid Corrosion in Zambia

by

Stop the Rot: History of the Rapid Corrosion Problem in Zambia and Potential Next Steps

Report by Javan Nkhosi and Kerstin Danert

A collation of observations by professionals, technical audit reports, evaluations, consultancy reports and academic research has found evidence of rapid corrosion in at least 22 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The phenomenon appears to be widespread, and, in many countries, is ongoing. Unfortunately, neither the histories of this phenomenon nor the geographic extent of it have been well documented.

This report, published in July 2023, presents the history and geographic extent of the rapid handpump corrosion phenomenon in Zambia. It describes the fragmented and seemingly forgotten solutions that have taken place since the 1980s. The report charts when and where the phenomenon became evident in the country, the measures taken (or not), and what was learned (or not), and proposes next steps for the Zambian government and its cooperating partners to tackle this pervasive problem.

Rapid handpump corrosion occurs when aggressive groundwater reacts with galvanised iron (GI) riser pipes and rods of a handpump, and the India Mark II in particular. The materials corrode, with the pumped water becoming bitter in taste, with an unpleasant smell and a rusty colour. This not only renders the water unfit for drinking from a user perspective but also considerably reduces the pump lifespan. In Zambia, the main cause of rapid handpump corrosion is contact between groundwater with a pH of less than 6.5 and GI pipes and rods. However, salinity is also a problem in some parts of the country and can result in rapid corrosion too.

The use of alternative materials to GI, particularly stainless steel (SS) riser pipes and rods and uPVC rider pipes fitted with stainless steel connectors, can prevent rapid handpump corrosion. While rapid handpump corrosion was documented in West Africa in the late 1980’s, and actions to prevent it have been taken in some places, the phenomenon still occurs in over 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Zambia, with an estimated 22,000 handpumps in use, serving 32% of the population with their main drinking water supply, is among these countries.

In Zambia, while the geographical extent of aggressive water is not fully understood by water sector professionals, it has been documented and explained with respect to soils. A Soil Survey by the Mount Makulu Research Station from 1990 presents the situation clearly, with extreme soil acidity in the north, and soil acidity in the central parts of the country. Further, in Zambia the traditional Chitemene – ‘slash and burn’ – method of cultivation in the high rainfall region has been used since time immemorial to neutralise low pH in soils in order to cultivate crops. Leaching from these highly acidic soils affects the pH of the groundwater.

The problem of rapid corrosion in handpumps in Zambia has been known for more than 30 years (Pitcher, 2001) and is well documented, including in the following:

  • The Central Province Rural Water Supply Project (CPRWSP) (1985 – 1996) – which installed 564 handpumps with stainless steel riser pipes rather than using GI to prevent rapid corrosion.
  • The North-Western Province Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (2004 – 2009) – over 350 handpumps were installed with stainless steel riser pipes, also in response to the same issue.
  • In Luapula Province under the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA)-supported Groundwater Development Project (2007 – 2010), some Afridev handpumps with uPVC riser pipes were installed. The project rehabilitated existing, corroded handpumps which the community had previously abandoned. Replacing the GI pipes with uPVC stopped the iron problem, indicating that in these boreholes, using iron pipes had been the cause of corrosion.Iron removal plants were also installed on some boreholes.

However, while solutions were implemented at scale in the aforementioned projects in Central and North-Western Provinces, as well as the study in Luapula, the use of GI riser pipes and rods still continued in subsequent projects in the same areas, e.g.:

  • Central Province Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project – CPRWSSP (2000 – 2007), which drilled or rehabilitated over 3,400 boreholes and installed GI riser pipes. Rehabilitated handpumps may have in fact even replaced some of the stainless steel riser pipe handpumps that were installed under the CPRWSP outlined above.
  • Both GI and stainless steel components were availed through the spare parts shops supported by the Sustainable Operation and Maintenance Project – SOMAP 2 (2007 – 2010).
  • The Zambia Social InvestmentFund(ZAMSIF)projectinstalled India Mark II pumps with GI pipes and rods in Luapula province. They were subsequently rehabilitated by a JICA project (2000 to 2005).

This study has not able to uncover the reasons for this unfortunate turn of events, but it is worth noting that:

  • There was a change in the ministry responsible for drilling works. The period 1985 – 1996 saw borehole drilling under the Department of Water Affairs, while the Department of Infrastructure and Support Services under the Ministry of Local Government and Housing took on this role after it had been created in 1995.
  • National Guidelines for Sustainable Operation and Maintenance of Handpumps in Rural Areas (MLGH, 2007b) includes neither aggressive water as a criterion for handpump selection nor the use of stainless steel riser pipes, and so the use of GI pipes in aggressive water as the cause of the ensuing rapid corrosion was in effect further supported.

In the last ten years, further initiatives to understand and address the problem have been undertaken, including:

  • Under the SOMAP 2 project (2012 – 2013), the JICA-supported programme carried out pipe replacement of GI at 20 sites in four provinces (Luapula, Copperbelt, Central and the North Western) whereby GI pipes were removed, the boreholes flushed and then installed with uPVC pipes. The replaced handpumps performed well without the water turning rusty, and the communities continued to draw water from them, whereas previously they had been abandoned.
  • UNICEF also carried out pipe replacement in Mansa and Milenge districts of Luapula Province.In the study, India Mark II handpumps GI pipes at 45 sites were replaced with uPVC riser pipes. After the pipe replacement of GI riser pipes, the community used the handpumps that had previously been abandoned, with unsafe water sources being used instead. The pipe replacement study was successful, with the water users returning to previously abandoned boreholes which had clear, rust-free water.
  • There is some evidence of other projects and organisations starting to use either stainless steel riser pipes, or uPVC riser pipes with stainless steel connectors in their projects, but documentation is limited.

While stainless steel riser pipes have been used effectively, there are also some outstanding technical issues – particularly in relation to the removal of narrower diameter riser pipes, which require suitable tools that are not in the standard India Mark II toolkit. Further, the use of uPVC pipes has also been found to be problematic, as they need to be cut on removal and cannot easily be re-threaded. However, at least one NGO in Zambia has been using an alternative, comprising uPVC with stainless steel couplers which is available on the Zambian market. A further complication is that some parts of Zambia appear to exhibit naturally occurring iron. Tests are available to determine whether iron is naturally occurring or a result of corrosion, but there is no comprehensive map to indicate areas at risk of high levels of geogenic iron.

Despite all of the efforts to date, and notwithstanding the widespread nature of rapid handpump corrosion of GI riser pipes and pump rods, the problem still persists in 2023. There is no government policy position on the problem or solutions, nor is there any standardisation of which handpumps to use in areas affected by aggressive groundwater.

The report provides a number of recommendations for consideration by the Government of the Republic of Zambia (GRZ) in order to mitigate, reduce and ultimately eliminate rapid corrosion of GI riser pipes and pump rods as follows:

  1. revise the National Water Policy to include aggressive water in community boreholes;
  2. restrict types of handpumps to certain regions, with due consideration of suitable technologies for water depth;
  3. enact a law and a statutory instrument on aggressive groundwater in community boreholes;
  4. incentivise the private sector for provision of quality, corrosion-resistant riser pipes and rods;
  5. standardise handpumps used in Zambia.

The study also recommends further research on:

▪ replacement of GI riser pipes,
▪ the phenomenon of naturally occurring iron in ground and surface water and
▪ saline water in Western Province.

You can download the full report here.

Online learning on groundwater in Africa and beyond

by

Professional Drilling Management & Groundwater Resources Management

Thanks to funding from the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR) in Germany, 2022 saw Ask for Water GmbH, together with the Africa Groundwater Network, Cap-Net UNDP and other partners develop and run two online courses on groundwater. The courses strengthened the capacity of the staff of governments, NGOs, the private sector and academia in African member states and beyond. 

The courses, hosted by Cap-Net UNDP, and offered free of charge to participants, were entitled Groundwater Resources Management and Professional Drilling Management. Each course was specifically developed for professionals working on these issues, or responsible for decision making.

Face to face training course on drilling supervision
in Sierra Leone (Source: Kerstin Danert)

Artesian well near Lake Chad, Chad
(Source: Moustapha Diene)

Professional Drilling Management Course

Drilled water wells are vital to achieving universal clean drinking water, providing safe, affordable, reliable and available water sources. To ensure that the water wells or boreholes are built to last, they must be drilled, developed and completed in a professional manner. Key elements of a professional drilling sector are robust procurement, contract management, siting, borehole design, construction, and supervision. Furthermore, the management of the groundwater resources must also be considered and support provided to long-term maintenance if services are to last. Unfortunately, in many countries it is difficult to develop skills in these areas due to a lack of training and mentoring opportunities.

The 2022 online course on Professional Drilling Management provided participants with a comprehensive overview of the different aspects of drilling management, specifically (i) groundwater data and siting; (ii) procurement and contract management (including costing and pricing; (iii) borehole drilling and supervision and (iv) legal and institutional frameworks. In the last of five modules, participants were encouraged to reflect upon and share actions that they as individuals and as organisations could take to raise drilling professionalism in the context in which they work. From the 781 people who applied for the course, 314 were selected, of which 209 were active participants. A total of 162, equivalent to 78% of the active participants passed the course. 

You can access the 2022 course report, manual and key training materials here.

If you would like to learn about what alumni of previous online courses on Professional Drilling Management have done with their knowledge, check out the short film below or the short report of their testimonials.

Groundwater Resources Management Course

An estimated 50% of the global and 75% of the African population rely on groundwater for their drinking water supplies. Groundwater supports social and economic development and will become increasingly important in the face of climate change, as groundwater resources are often less affected than surface water by climate change impacts. If groundwater is to provide reliable, safe and sustainable water supplies now and for future generations, the resource must be well-managed. This requires consideration of the entire system of policies & laws, strategies & guidance, monitoring & management as well as investments & projects. Good groundwater management needs sound capacities in water authorities. But at same time, as many elements of groundwater management fall in other sectors, a general understanding of groundwater management principles in sectors like agriculture and urban planning is key for its successful implementation. 

The 2022 online course on groundwater resources management provides participants with a comprehensive overview of the multiple factors that impact upon groundwater. It was a self-paced course and was hosted on the virtual campus of Cap Net/UNDP.

The course comprised 5 modules; each with a short introduction, goal, learning objectives and orientation video, as well as mandatory videos and reading materials: 

  • Module 1: Characterization of Aquifer Systems from a Management Perspective
  • Module 2: Groundwater monitoring and data/information management & communication
  • Module 3: Groundwater quality and source water protection
  • Module 4: Groundwater regulation, licensing, allocation and institutions for aquifer management
  • Module 5: Transboundary aquifers in Africa: Approaches and mechanisms

You can access the 2022 course report, manual and key training materials here.

What next?

Ask for Water GmbH, the Africa Groundwater Network (AGW-Net), Cap-Net UNDP and partners would like to offer these courses on an annual basis. We are currently looking for sponsors/funders to make this possible. In case you are interested, please contact us via ask@ask-for-water.ch. Should we manage to get these courses off the ground, we will announce them through the Africa Groundwater Network, Cap-Net UNDP and the Rural Water Supply Network as well via LinkedIn.

Zambia’s groundwater regulation implementation

by

By Kerstin Danert

Zambia only withdraws an estimated 1.5% of its total renewable water resources and thus, at the national scale not, water scarce. However, the population, currently 18 million, is expected to be between 60 and 110 million by the end of the century. Increased water use is important for raising the agricultural productivity of smallholder farmers and reducing rural poverty, Zambia’s mining industry, is central for the country’s exports and generating foreign exchange and large scale irrigated agriculture plays an important role for the economy and livelihoods. These realities, coupled with droughts and future climate change impacts will all contribute to increased pressure on Zambia’s water resources.

There are also risks of pollution from mining, agriculture and the lack of sanitation infrastructure. This all illustrate the centrality of water resources in Zambia, which, ¨if not properly managed, could place fresh water availability at risk.

The year 2018 witnessed the commencement of regulation of groundwater development and use in Zambia. Regulations, of any kind, are essentially control systems with specific capacities that set standards, gather information (or monitor) and modify behaviour. The recent Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA) publication documents the achievements and lessons learned of implementing these regulations. 

Participants of a UNICEF-supported drilling supervision course in 2018 (credit: Dotun Adekile)

The Water Resources Management (WRM) Act, 2011 was the basis for establishing the Water Resources Management Authority (WARMA). The Act contains 64 instances requiring regulation, which were grouped, providing a basis for eight Statutory Instruments (SIs). The three SIs that were promulgated[1] in 2018 are an important step towards protecting Zambia’s aquifers and regulating abstraction, while supporting the sustainable development of the country’s groundwater resources and protecting the interests of the general public. The three SIs define tariffs and charges for water use (SI 18), require drillers to be licenced and set borehole standards (SI 19), and require groundwater users to apply for permits (SI 20). 

The process of developing the regulations illustrates the importance of partnership and wide consultation. Since the promulgation of the three SIs in March 2018, a considerable amount of data has been collected by WARMA alongside the generation of substantial revenue. There has also been valuable learning about legal pitfalls alongside the practicalities of regulating – including administration, human resources, physical presence, and the need for suitable Information Technology (IT) systems.

The study found an appreciation among of the importance and need to regulate groundwater, alongside a recognition that, particularly given the size of the country, that this is a huge undertaking for WARMA. However, the regulations have been politicised, and even labelled “the borehole tax”, which could affect implementation going forward. In Zambia, water is recognised, by law, as having as an economic value, and the cost of facilitating its use is recognised as having a significant administrative cost. It is essential that this, and that the associated permit, licence and use charges are widely understood, particularly by water users.

While there is widespread awareness of the new regulatory requirements there are concerns that more is needed to communicate with water users who may not yet be aware of the regulations. While there is evidence of goodwill towards the regulation, there are concerns that while these three new SIs are generating revenue for WARMA, the process of translating the WRM Act, 2011 into regulations is not yet fully complete. Important gaps remain with respect to groundwater pollution and protection, as well as local governance of water resources and allocations at catchment and sub-catchment levels. The SIs concerning these components of the Water Act, 2011 have not yet been issued, undermining the holistic and integrated approach of Zambia’s WRM Act, 2011 will be fully enacted as envisaged. 

While over 30,000 existing boreholes were registered within the first year, and over 1,000 new permits to drill have been issued subsequently, it is taking time for digitisation of this information. This means that these data, and other data (e.g., drilling logs) has not been as readily available as hoped. 

If you want to read more, you can download the publication (in English and French) from here: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details/1040

[1] Promulgation is the formal proclamation or the declaration that a new statutory or administrative law is enacted after its final approval. In some jurisdictions, this additional step is necessary before the law can take effect (Wikipedia, 2021).